Tocopherols are an essential component of mammalian diets. Epidemiological evidence indicates that tocopherol supplementation can result in decreased risk for cardiovascular disease and cancer, can aid in immune function, and is associated with prevention or retardation of a number of degenerative disease processes in humans (Traber and Sies, Annu. Rev. Nutr. 16:321–347 (1996)). Tocopherol functions, in part, by stabilizing the lipid bilayer of biological membranes (Skrypin and Kagan, Biochim. Biophys. Acta 815:209 (1995); Kagan, N. Y. Acad. Sci. p 121, (1989); Gomez-Fernandez et al., Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. p 109 (1989)), reducing polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) free radicals generated by lipid oxidation (Fukuzawa et al., Lipids 17: 511–513 (1982)), and scavenging oxygen free radicals, lipid peroxy radicals, and singlet oxygen species (Diplock et al., Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 570: 72 (1989); Fryer, Plant Cell Environ. 15(4):381–392 (1992)).
α-Tocopherol, often referred to as vitamin E, belongs to a class of lipid-soluble antioxidants that includes α, β, γ, and δ-tocopherols and α, β, γ, and δ-tocotrienols. Although α, β, γ, and δ-tocopherols and α, β, γ, and δ-tocotrienols are sometimes referred to collectively as “vitamin E,” vitamin E is more appropriately defined chemically as α-tocopherol. α-tocopherol is significant for human health, in part because it is readily absorbed and retained by the body, and has a higher degree of bioactivity than other tocopherol species (Traber and Sies, Annu. Rev. Nutr. 16:321–347 (1996)). However, other tocopherols such as β, γ, and δ-tocopherols, also have significant health and nutritional benefits.
Tocopherols are primarily synthesized only by plants and certain other photosynthetic organisms, including cyanobacteria. As a result, mammalian dietary tocopherols are obtained almost exclusively from these sources. Plant tissues vary considerably in total tocopherol content and tocopherol composition, with α-tocopherol the predominant tocopherol species found in green, photosynthetic plant tissues. Leaf tissue can contain from 10–50 μg of total tocopherols per gram fresh weight, but most of the world's major staple crops (e.g., rice, maize, wheat, potato) produce low to extremely low levels of total tocopherols, of which only a small percentage is α-tocopherol (Hess, Vitamin E, α-tocopherol, In Antioxidants in Higher Plants, R. Alscher and J. Hess, Eds., CRC Press, Boca Raton. pp. 111–134 (1993)). Oil seed crops generally contain much higher levels of total tocopherols, but α-tocopherol is present only as a minor component (Taylor and Barnes, Chemy Ind., Oct. :722–726 (1981)).
The recommended daily dietary intake of 15–30 mg of vitamin E is quite difficult to achieve from the average American diet. For example, it would take over 750 grams of spinach leaves, in which α-tocopherol comprises 60% of total tocopherols, or 200–400 grams of soybean oil to satisfy this recommended daily vitamin E intake. While it is possible to augment the diet with supplements, most of these supplements contain primarily synthetic vitamin E, having six stereoisomers, whereas natural vitamin E is predominantly composed of only a single isomer. Furthermore, supplements tend to be relatively expensive, and the general population is disinclined to take vitamin supplements on a regular basis. Therefore, there is a need in the art for compositions and methods that either increase the total tocopherol production or increase the relative percentage of α-tocopherol produced by plants.
In addition to the health benefits of tocpherols, increased α-tocopherol levels in crops have been associated with enhanced stability and extended shelf life of plant products (Peterson, Cereal-Chem 72(1):21–24 (1995); Ball, Fat-soluble vitamin assays in food analysis. A comprehensive review, London, Elsevier Science Publishers Ltd. (1988)). Further, tocopherol supplementation of swine, beef, and poultry feeds has been shown to significantly increase meat quality and extend the shelf life of post-processed meat products by retarding post-processing lipid oxidation, which contributes to undesirable flavor components (Sante and Lacourt, J. Sci. Food Agric. 65(4):503–507 (1994); Buckley et al., J. of Animal Science 73:3122–3130 (1995)).
Tocopherol Biosynthesis
The plastids of higher plants exhibit interconnected biochemical pathways leading to secondary metabolites including tocopherols. The tocopherol biosynthetic pathway in higher plants involves condensation of homogentisic acid and phytylpyrophosphate to form 2-methyl-6 phytylplastoquinol (Fiedler et al., Planta 155: 511–515 (1982); Soll et al., Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 204: 544–550 (1980); Marshall et al., Phytochem. 24: 1705–1711 (1985)). This plant tocopherol pathway can be divided into four parts: 1) synthesis of homogentistic acid, which contributes to the aromatic ring of tocopherol; 2) synthesis of phytylpyrophosphate, which contributes to the side chain of tocopherol; 3) cyclization, which plays a role in chirality and chromanol substructure of the vitamin E family; 4) and S-adenosyl methionine dependent methylation of an aromatic ring, which affects the relative abundance of each of the tocopherol species.
Synthesis of Homogentistic Acid
Homogentisic acid is the common precursor to both tocopherols and plastoquinones. In at least some bacteria the synthesis of homogentesic acid is believed to occur via the conversion of chorismate to prephenate and then to p-hydroxyphenyl-pyruvate via a bifunctional prephenate dehydrogenase. Examples of bifunctional bacterial prephenate dehydrogenase enzymes include the proteins encoded by the TyrA genes of Erwinia herbicola and Escherichia coli. The TyrA gene product catalyzes the production of prephenate from chorismate, as well as the subsequent dehydrogenation of prephenate to form p-hydroxyphenylpyruvate (p-HPP), the immediate precursor to homogentistic acid. p-HPP is then converted to homogentistic acid by hydroxyphenyl-pyruvate dioxygenase (HPPD). In contrast, plants are reported to lack prephenate dehydrogenase activity, and it is further reported that the synthesis of homogentesic acid from chorismate occurs via the synthesis and conversion of the intermediate arogenate. Since pathways involved in homogentesic acid synthesis are also responsible for tyrosine formation, any alterations in these pathways can also result in the alteration in tyrosine synthesis and the synthesis of other aromatic amino acids.
Synthesis of Phytylpyrophosphate
Tocopherols are a member of the class of compounds referred to as the isoprenoids. Other isoprenoids include carotenoids, gibberellins, terpenes, chlorophyll and abscisic acid. A central intermediate in the production of isoprenoids is isopentenyl diphosphate (IPP). Cytoplasmic and plastid-based pathways to generate IPP have been reported. The cytoplasmic based pathway involves the enzymes acetoacetyl CoA thiolase, HMGCoA synthase, HMGCoA reductase, mevalonate kinase, phosphomevalonate kinase, and mevalonate pyrophosphate decarboxylase.
Recently, evidence for the existence of an alternative, plastid based, isoprenoid biosynthetic pathway emerged from studies in the research groups of Rohmer and Arigoni (Eisenreich et al., Chem. Bio., 5:R221-R233 (1998); Rohmer, Prog. Drug. Res., 50:135–154 (1998); Rohmer, Comprehensive Natural Products Chemistry, Vol. 2, pp. 45–68, Barton and Nakanishi (eds.), Pergamon Press, Oxford, England (1999)), who found that the isotope labeling patterns observed in studies on certain eubacterial and plant terpenoids could not be explained in terms of the mevalonate pathway. Arigoni and coworkers subsequently showed that 1-deoxyxylulose, or a derivative thereof, serves as an intermediate of the novel pathway, now referred to as the MEP pathway (Rohmer et al., Biochem. J., 295:517–524 (1993); Schwarz, Ph.D. thesis, Eidgenössiche Technische Hochschule, Zurich, Switzerland (1994)). Recent studies showed the formation of 1-deoxyxylulose 5-phosphate (Broers, Ph.D. thesis (Eidgenössiche Technische Hochschule, Zurich, Switzerland) (1994)) from one molecule each of glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (Rohmer, Comprehensive Natural Products Chemistry, Vol. 2, pp. 45–68, Barton and Nakanishi, eds., Pergamon Press, Oxford, England (1999)) and pyruvate (Eisenreich et al., Chem. Biol., 5:R223–R233 (1998); Schwarz supra; Rohmer et al., J. Am. Chem. Soc., 118:2564–2566 (1996); and Sprenger et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 94:12857–12862 (1997)) by an enzyme encoded by the dxs gene (Lois et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 95:2105–2110 (1997); and Lange et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 95:2100–2104 (1998)). 1-Deoxyxylulose 5-phosphate can be further converted into 2-C-methylerythritol 4-phosphate (Arigoni et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 94:10600–10605 (1997)) by a reductoisomerase catalyzed by the dxr gene (Bouvier et al., Plant Physiol, 117:1421–1431 (1998); and Rohdich et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 96:11758–11763 (1999)).
Reported genes in the MEP pathway also include ygbP, which catalyzes the conversion of 2-C-methylerythritol 4-phosphate into its respective cytidyl pyrophosphate derivative and ygbB, which catalyzes the conversion of 4-phosphocytidyl-2C-methyl-D-erythritol into 2C-methyl-D-erythritol, 3, 4-cyclophosphate. These genes are tightly linked on the E. coli genome (Herz et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 97(6):2485–2490 (2000)).
Once IPP is formed by the MEP pathway, it is converted to GGDP by GGDP synthase, and then to phytylpyrophosphate, which is the central constituent of the tocopherol side chain.
Combination and Cyclization
Homogentisic acid is combined with either phytyl-pyrophosphate or solanyl-pyrophosphate by phytyl/prenyl transferase forming 2-methyl-6-phytyl plastoquinol or 2-methyl-6-solanyl plastoquinol respectively. 2-methyl-6-solanyl plastoquinol is a precursor to the biosynthesis of plastoquinones, while 2-methyl-6-phytyl plastoquinol is ultimately converted to tocopherol.
Methylation of the Aromatic Ring
A major structural difference between each of the tocopherol subtypes is the position of the methyl groups around the phenyl ring. Both 2-methyl-6-phytyl plastoquinol and 2-methyl-6-solanyl plastoquinol serve as substrates for 2-methyl-6-phytylplatoquinol/2-methyl-6-solanylplastoquinol-9 methyltransferase (Methyl Transferase 1; MT1), which catalyzes the formation of plastoquinol-9 and γ-tocopherol respectively, by methylation of the 7 position. Subsequent methylation at the 5 position of γ-tocopherol by γ-methyl-transferase generates the biologically active α-tocopherol.
Energy Requirements
Production of tocopherols is extremely expensive in terms of the amount of energy required to generate adequate tocopherol levels. Adenylate transporters supply nucleotide triphosphates (including ATP and CTP) into the cell or cellular compartment for use in biosynthetic or metabolic processes. A putative adenylate transporter sequence from Arabidopsis thaliana has been reported in the literature (Saint Guily, et al., Plant Physiol., 100(2):1069–1071 (1992)).
There is a need in the art for nucleic acid molecules encoding enzymes involved in nucleotide triphosphate transport, as well as related enzymes and antibodies for the enhancement or alteration of tocopherol production in plants. There is a further need for transgenic organisms expressing those nucleic acid molecules involved in nucleotide triphosphate transport, which are capable of nutritionally enhancing food and feed sources.